ABSTRACT
Viral exoribonucleases are uncommon in the world of RNA viruses. To date, they have only been identified in the Arenaviridae and the Coronaviridae families. The exoribonucleases of these viruses play a crucial role in the pathogenicity and interplay with host innate immune response. Moreover, coronaviruses exoribonuclease is also involved in a proofreading mechanism ensuring the genetic stability of the viral genome. Because of their key roles in virus life cycle, they constitute attractive target for drug design. Here we developed a sensitive, robust and reliable fluorescence polarization assay to measure the exoribonuclease activity and its inhibition in vitro. The effectiveness of the method was validated on three different viral exoribonucleases, including SARS-CoV-2, Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis and Machupo viruses. We performed a screening of a focused library consisting of 113 metal chelators. Hit compounds were recovered with an IC50 at micromolar level. We confirmed 3 hits in SARS-CoV-2 infected Vero-E6 cells.
Subject(s)
Antiviral Agents , Arenavirus , Exoribonucleases , SARS-CoV-2 , Animals , Antiviral Agents/pharmacology , Arenavirus/drug effects , Chlorocebus aethiops , Exoribonucleases/antagonists & inhibitors , Fluorescence Polarization , SARS-CoV-2/drug effects , Vero Cells , Viral Nonstructural Proteins/antagonists & inhibitorsABSTRACT
The guanosine analog AT-527 represents a promising candidate against Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2). AT-527 recently entered phase III clinical trials for the treatment of COVID-19. Once in cells, AT-527 is converted into its triphosphate form, AT-9010, that presumably targets the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp, nsp12), for incorporation into viral RNA. Here we report a 2.98 Å cryo-EM structure of the SARS-CoV-2 nsp12-nsp7-nsp82-RNA complex, showing AT-9010 bound at three sites of nsp12. In the RdRp active-site, one AT-9010 is incorporated at the 3' end of the RNA product strand. Its modified ribose group (2'-fluoro, 2'-methyl) prevents correct alignment of the incoming NTP, in this case a second AT-9010, causing immediate termination of RNA synthesis. The third AT-9010 is bound to the N-terminal domain of nsp12 - known as the NiRAN. In contrast to native NTPs, AT-9010 is in a flipped orientation in the active-site, with its guanine base unexpectedly occupying a previously unnoticed cavity. AT-9010 outcompetes all native nucleotides for NiRAN binding, inhibiting its nucleotidyltransferase activity. The dual mechanism of action of AT-527 at both RdRp and NiRAN active sites represents a promising research avenue against COVID-19.
Subject(s)
Antiviral Agents/chemistry , Antiviral Agents/pharmacology , Guanosine Monophosphate/analogs & derivatives , Phosphoramides/chemistry , Phosphoramides/pharmacology , RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase/antagonists & inhibitors , SARS-CoV-2/enzymology , Viral Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors , Viral Proteins/metabolism , COVID-19/virology , Cryoelectron Microscopy , Enzyme Inhibitors/chemistry , Enzyme Inhibitors/pharmacology , Guanosine Monophosphate/chemistry , Guanosine Monophosphate/pharmacology , Humans , RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase/chemistry , RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase/genetics , RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase/metabolism , SARS-CoV-2/chemistry , SARS-CoV-2/drug effects , SARS-CoV-2/genetics , Viral Proteins/geneticsABSTRACT
As coronaviruses (CoVs) replicate in the host cell cytoplasm, they rely on their own capping machinery to ensure the efficient translation of their messenger RNAs (mRNAs), protect them from degradation by cellular 5' exoribonucleases (ExoNs), and escape innate immune sensing. The CoV nonstructural protein 14 (nsp14) is a bifunctional replicase subunit harboring an N-terminal 3'-to-5' ExoN domain and a C-terminal (N7-guanine)-methyltransferase (N7-MTase) domain that is presumably involved in viral mRNA capping. Here, we aimed to integrate structural, biochemical, and virological data to assess the importance of conserved N7-MTase residues for nsp14's enzymatic activities and virus viability. We revisited the crystal structure of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-CoV nsp14 to perform an in silico comparative analysis between betacoronaviruses. We identified several residues likely involved in the formation of the N7-MTase catalytic pocket, which presents a fold distinct from the Rossmann fold observed in most known MTases. Next, for SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory syndrome CoV, site-directed mutagenesis of selected residues was used to assess their importance for in vitro enzymatic activity. Most of the engineered mutations abolished N7-MTase activity, while not affecting nsp14-ExoN activity. Upon reverse engineering of these mutations into different betacoronavirus genomes, we identified two substitutions (R310A and F426A in SARS-CoV nsp14) abrogating virus viability and one mutation (H424A) yielding a crippled phenotype across all viruses tested. Our results identify the N7-MTase as a critical enzyme for betacoronavirus replication and define key residues of its catalytic pocket that can be targeted to design inhibitors with a potential pan-coronaviral activity spectrum.
Subject(s)
Exoribonucleases/chemistry , Models, Molecular , Protein Conformation , Viral Nonstructural Proteins/chemistry , Amino Acid Sequence , Base Sequence , Binding Sites , Catalytic Domain , Conserved Sequence , Exoribonucleases/genetics , Exoribonucleases/metabolism , Microbial Viability , Nucleotide Motifs , RNA, Viral/chemistry , RNA, Viral/genetics , RNA-Binding Proteins , Structure-Activity Relationship , Viral Nonstructural Proteins/genetics , Viral Nonstructural Proteins/metabolism , Virus Replication/geneticsABSTRACT
With sizes <50 kb, viral RNA genomes are at the crossroads of genetic, biophysical, and biochemical stability in their host cell. Here, we analyze the enzymatic assets accompanying large RNA genome viruses, mostly based on recent scientific advances in Coronaviridae. We argue that, in addition to the presence of an RNA exonuclease (ExoN), two markers for the large size of viral RNA genomes are (i) the presence of one or more RNA methyltransferases (MTases) and (ii) a specific architecture of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase active site. We propose that RNA genome expansion and maintenance are driven by an evolutionary ménage-à-trois made of fast and processive RNA polymerases, RNA repair ExoNs, and RNA MTases that relates to the transition between RNA- to DNA-based life.
Subject(s)
RNA Viruses , Amino Acid Sequence , Genome Size , Methyltransferases , RNA Viruses/genetics , RNA, Viral/geneticsABSTRACT
The order Nidovirales is a diverse group of (+)RNA viruses, classified together based on their common genome organisation and conserved replicative enzymes, despite drastic differences in size and complexity. One such difference pertains to the mechanisms and enzymes responsible for generation of the proposed viral 5' RNA cap. Within the Coronaviridae family, two separate methytransferases (MTase), nsp14 and nsp16, perform the RNA-cap N7-guanine and 2'-OH methylation respectively for generation of the proposed m7GpppNm type I cap structure. For the majority of other families within the Nidovirales order, the presence, structure and key enzymes involved in 5' capping are far less clear. These viruses either lack completely an RNA MTase signature sequence, or lack an N7-guanine methyltransferase signature sequence, obscuring our understanding about how RNA-caps are N7-methylated for these families. Here, we report the discovery of a putative Rossmann fold RNA methyltransferase in 10 Tobaniviridae members in Orf1a, an unusual genome locus for this gene. Multiple sequence alignments and structural analyses lead us to propose this novel gene as a typical RNA-cap N7-guanine MTase with substrate specificity and active-site organization similar to the canonical eukaryotic RNA-cap N7-guanine MTase.
ABSTRACT
The ongoing Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), has emphasized the urgent need for antiviral therapeutics. The viral RNA-dependent-RNA-polymerase (RdRp) is a promising target with polymerase inhibitors successfully used for the treatment of several viral diseases. We demonstrate here that Favipiravir predominantly exerts an antiviral effect through lethal mutagenesis. The SARS-CoV RdRp complex is at least 10-fold more active than any other viral RdRp known. It possesses both unusually high nucleotide incorporation rates and high-error rates allowing facile insertion of Favipiravir into viral RNA, provoking C-to-U and G-to-A transitions in the already low cytosine content SARS-CoV-2 genome. The coronavirus RdRp complex represents an Achilles heel for SARS-CoV, supporting nucleoside analogues as promising candidates for the treatment of COVID-19.
Subject(s)
Amides/pharmacology , Antiviral Agents/pharmacology , Betacoronavirus/drug effects , Betacoronavirus/genetics , Coronavirus Infections/drug therapy , Pneumonia, Viral/drug therapy , Pyrazines/pharmacology , Amides/pharmacokinetics , Animals , Antiviral Agents/pharmacokinetics , COVID-19 , Chlorocebus aethiops , Coronavirus Infections/virology , Coronavirus RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase , Models, Molecular , Mutagenesis/drug effects , Pandemics , Pneumonia, Viral/virology , Pyrazines/pharmacokinetics , RNA, Viral/genetics , RNA, Viral/metabolism , RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase/chemistry , RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase/metabolism , SARS-CoV-2 , Sequence Analysis , Vero Cells , Viral Nonstructural Proteins/chemistry , Viral Nonstructural Proteins/metabolism , Virus Replication/drug effects , COVID-19 Drug TreatmentABSTRACT
The rapid global emergence of SARS-CoV-2 has been the cause of significant health concern, highlighting the immediate need for antivirals. Viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RdRp) play essential roles in viral RNA synthesis, and thus remains the target of choice for the prophylactic or curative treatment of several viral diseases, due to high sequence and structural conservation. To date, the most promising broad-spectrum class of viral RdRp inhibitors are nucleoside analogues (NAs), with over 25 approved for the treatment of several medically important viral diseases. However, Coronaviruses stand out as a particularly challenging case for NA drug design due to the presence of an exonuclease (ExoN) domain capable of excising incorporated NAs and thus providing resistance to many of these available antivirals. Here we use the available structures of the SARS-CoV RdRp and ExoN proteins, as well as Lassa virus N exonuclease to derive models of catalytically competent SARS-CoV-2 enzymes. We then map a promising NA candidate, GS-441524 (the active metabolite of Remdesivir) to the nucleoside active site of both proteins, identifying the residues important for nucleotide recognition, discrimination, and excision. Interestingly, GS-441524 addresses both enzyme active sites in a manner consistent with significant incorporation, delayed chain termination, and altered excision due to the ribose 1'-CN group, which may account for the increased antiviral effect compared to other available analogues. Additionally, we propose structural and function implications of two previously identified RdRp resistance mutations in relation to resistance against Remdesivir. This study highlights the importance of considering the balance between incorporation and excision properties of NAs between the RdRp and ExoN.